7-1-1_Integration_Server_Built-In_Services_Reference.pdf下载

weixin_39820780 2020-12-06 09:00:59
The webMethods Integration Server Built‐In Services Reference describes the built‐in services
provided with a standard installation of the webMethods Integration Server. Services are
also installed with webMethods add‐on packages, such as adapters and monitoring tools.
You will find documentation fo
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9-12_Integration_Server_Built_In_Services_Reference
The webMethods Integration Server Built-In Services Reference describes the built-in services provided with a standard installation of the webMethods Integration Server. Services are also installed with webMethods add-on packages, such as adapters and monitoring tools. You will find documentation for those services in the user guide provided with the add-on product.
7-1-1_Integration_Server_Built-In_Services_Reference.pdf
The webMethods Integration Server Built‐In Services Reference describes the built‐in services provided with a standard installation of the webMethods Integration Server. Services are also installed with webMethods add‐on packages, such as adapters and monitoring tools. You will find documentation for those services in the user guide provided with the addon product.
spring-boot-reference.pdf
I. Spring Boot Documentation 1. About the Documentation 2. Getting Help 3. First Steps 4. Working with Spring Boot 5. Learning about Spring Boot Features 6. Moving to Production 7. Advanced Topics II. Getting Started 8. Introducing Spring Boot 9. System Requirements 9.1. Servlet Containers 10. Installing Spring Boot 10.1. Installation Instructions for the Java Developer 10.1.1. Maven Installation 10.1.2. Gradle Installation 10.2. Installing the Spring Boot CLI 10.2.1. Manual Installation 10.2.2. Installation with SDKMAN! 10.2.3. OSX Homebrew Installation 10.2.4. MacPorts Installation 10.2.5. Command-line Completion 10.2.6. Quick-start Spring CLI Example 10.3. Upgrading from an Earlier Version of Spring Boot 11. Developing Your First Spring Boot Application 11.1. Creating the POM 11.2. Adding Classpath Dependencies 11.3. Writing the Code 11.3.1. The @RestController and @RequestMapping Annotations 11.3.2. The @EnableAutoConfiguration Annotation 11.3.3. The “main” Method 11.4. Running the Example 11.5. Creating an Executable Jar 12. What to Read Next III. Using Spring Boot 13. Build Systems 13.1. Dependency Management 13.2. Maven 13.2.1. Inheriting the Starter Parent 13.2.2. Using Spring Boot without the Parent POM 13.2.3. Using the Spring Boot Maven Plugin 13.3. Gradle 13.4. Ant 13.5. Starters 14. Structuring Your Code 14.1. Using the “default” Package 14.2. Locating the Main Application Class 15. Configuration Classes 15.1. Importing Additional Configuration Classes 15.2. Importing XML Configuration 16. Auto-configuration 16.1. Gradually Replacing Auto-configuration 16.2. Disabling Specific Auto-configuration Classes 17. Spring Beans and Dependency Injection 18. Using the @SpringBootApplication Annotation 19. Running Your Application 19.1. Running from an IDE 19.2. Running as a Packaged Application 19.3. Using the Maven Plugin 19.4. Using the Gradle Plugin 19.5. Hot Swapping 20. Developer Tools 20.1. Property Defaults 20.2. Automatic Restart 20.2.1. Logging changes in condition evaluation 20.2.2. Excluding Resources 20.2.3. Watching Additional Paths 20.2.4. Disabling Restart 20.2.5. Using a Trigger File 20.2.6. Customizing the Restart Classloader 20.2.7. Known Limitations 20.3. LiveReload 20.4. Global Settings 20.5. Remote Applications 20.5.1. Running the Remote Client Application 20.5.2. Remote Update 21. Packaging Your Application for Production 22. What to Read Next IV. Spring Boot features 23. SpringApplication 23.1. Startup Failure 23.2. Customizing the Banner 23.3. Customizing SpringApplication 23.4. Fluent Builder API 23.5. Application Events and Listeners 23.6. Web Environment 23.7. Accessing Application Arguments 23.8. Using the ApplicationRunner or CommandLineRunner 23.9. Application Exit 23.10. Admin Features 24. Externalized Configuration 24.1. Configuring Random Values 24.2. Accessing Command Line Properties 24.3. Application Property Files 24.4. Profile-specific Properties 24.5. Placeholders in Properties 24.6. Using YAML Instead of Properties 24.6.1. Loading YAML 24.6.2. Exposing YAML as Properties in the Spring Environment 24.6.3. Multi-profile YAML Documents 24.6.4. YAML Shortcomings 24.7. Type-safe Configuration Properties 24.7.1. Third-party Configuration 24.7.2. Relaxed Binding 24.7.3. Merging Complex Types 24.7.4. Properties Conversion Converting durations 24.7.5. @ConfigurationProperties Validation 24.7.6. @ConfigurationProperties vs. @Value 25. Profiles 25.1. Adding Active Profiles 25.2. Programmatically Setting Profiles 25.3. Profile-specific Configuration Files 26. Logging 26.1. Log Format 26.2. Console Output 26.2.1. Color-coded Output 26.3. File Output 26.4. Log Levels 26.5. Custom Log Configuration 26.6. Logback Extensions 26.6.1. Profile-specific Configuration 26.6.2. Environment Properties 27. Developing Web Applications 27.1. The “Spring Web MVC Framework” 27.1.1. Spring MVC Auto-configuration 27.1.2. HttpMessageConverters 27.1.3. Custom JSON Serializers and Deserializers 27.1.4. MessageCodesResolver 27.1.5. Static Content 27.1.6. Welcome Page 27.1.7. Custom Favicon 27.1.8. Path Matching and Content Negotiation 27.1.9. ConfigurableWebBindingInitializer 27.1.10. Template Engines 27.1.11. Error Handling Custom Error Pages Mapping Error Pages outside of Spring MVC 27.1.12. Spring HATEOAS 27.1.13. CORS Support 27.2. The “Spring WebFlux Framework” 27.2.1. Spring WebFlux Auto-configuration 27.2.2. HTTP Codecs with HttpMessageReaders and HttpMessageWriters 27.2.3. Static Content 27.2.4. Template Engines 27.2.5. Error Handling Custom Error Pages 27.2.6. Web Filters 27.3. JAX-RS and Jersey 27.4. Embedded Servlet Container Support 27.4.1. Servlets, Filters, and listeners Registering Servlets, Filters, and Listeners as Spring Beans 27.4.2. Servlet Context Initialization Scanning for Servlets, Filters, and listeners 27.4.3. The ServletWebServerApplicationContext 27.4.4. Customizing Embedded Servlet Containers Programmatic Customization Customizing ConfigurableServletWebServerFactory Directly 27.4.5. JSP Limitations 28. Security 28.1. MVC Security 28.2. WebFlux Security 28.3. OAuth2 28.3.1. Client 28.3.2. Server 28.4. Actuator Security 28.4.1. Cross Site Request Forgery Protection 29. Working with SQL Databases 29.1. Configure a DataSource 29.1.1. Embedded Database Support 29.1.2. Connection to a Production Database 29.1.3. Connection to a JNDI DataSource 29.2. Using JdbcTemplate 29.3. JPA and “Spring Data” 29.3.1. Entity Classes 29.3.2. Spring Data JPA Repositories 29.3.3. Creating and Dropping JPA Databases 29.3.4. Open EntityManager in View 29.4. Using H2’s Web Console 29.4.1. Changing the H2 Console’s Path 29.5. Using jOOQ 29.5.1. Code Generation 29.5.2. Using DSLContext 29.5.3. jOOQ SQL Dialect 29.5.4. Customizing jOOQ 30. Working with NoSQL Technologies 30.1. Redis 30.1.1. Connecting to Redis 30.2. MongoDB 30.2.1. Connecting to a MongoDB Database 30.2.2. MongoTemplate 30.2.3. Spring Data MongoDB Repositories 30.2.4. Embedded Mongo 30.3. Neo4j 30.3.1. Connecting to a Neo4j Database 30.3.2. Using the Embedded Mode 30.3.3. Neo4jSession 30.3.4. Spring Data Neo4j Repositories 30.3.5. Repository Example 30.4. Gemfire 30.5. Solr 30.5.1. Connecting to Solr 30.5.2. Spring Data Solr Repositories 30.6. Elasticsearch 30.6.1. Connecting to Elasticsearch by Using Jest 30.6.2. Connecting to Elasticsearch by Using Spring Data 30.6.3. Spring Data Elasticsearch Repositories 30.7. Cassandra 30.7.1. Connecting to Cassandra 30.7.2. Spring Data Cassandra Repositories 30.8. Couchbase 30.8.1. Connecting to Couchbase 30.8.2. Spring Data Couchbase Repositories 30.9. LDAP 30.9.1. Connecting to an LDAP Server 30.9.2. Spring Data LDAP Repositories 30.9.3. Embedded In-memory LDAP Server 30.10. InfluxDB 30.10.1. Connecting to InfluxDB 31. Caching 31.1. Supported Cache Providers 31.1.1. Generic 31.1.2. JCache (JSR-107) 31.1.3. EhCache 2.x 31.1.4. Hazelcast 31.1.5. Infinispan 31.1.6. Couchbase 31.1.7. Redis 31.1.8. Caffeine 31.1.9. Simple 31.1.10. None 32. Messaging 32.1. JMS 32.1.1. ActiveMQ Support 32.1.2. Artemis Support 32.1.3. Using a JNDI ConnectionFactory 32.1.4. Sending a Message 32.1.5. Receiving a Message 32.2. AMQP 32.2.1. RabbitMQ support 32.2.2. Sending a Message 32.2.3. Receiving a Message 32.3. Apache Kafka Support 32.3.1. Sending a Message 32.3.2. Receiving a Message 32.3.3. Additional Kafka Properties 33. Calling REST Services with RestTemplate 33.1. RestTemplate Customization 34. Calling REST Services with WebClient 34.1. WebClient Customization 35. Validation 36. Sending Email 37. Distributed Transactions with JTA 37.1. Using an Atomikos Transaction Manager 37.2. Using a Bitronix Transaction Manager 37.3. Using a Narayana Transaction Manager 37.4. Using a Java EE Managed Transaction Manager 37.5. Mixing XA and Non-XA JMS Connections 37.6. Supporting an Alternative Embedded Transaction Manager 38. Hazelcast 39. Quartz Scheduler 40. Spring Integration 41. Spring Session 42. Monitoring and Management over JMX 43. Testing 43.1. Test Scope Dependencies 43.2. Testing Spring Applications 43.3. Testing Spring Boot Applications 43.3.1. Detecting Web Application Type 43.3.2. Detecting Test Configuration 43.3.3. Excluding Test Configuration 43.3.4. Testing with a running server 43.3.5. Using JMX 43.3.6. Mocking and Spying Beans 43.3.7. Auto-configured Tests 43.3.8. Auto-configured JSON Tests 43.3.9. Auto-configured Spring MVC Tests 43.3.10. Auto-configured Spring WebFlux Tests 43.3.11. Auto-configured Data JPA Tests 43.3.12. Auto-configured JDBC Tests 43.3.13. Auto-configured jOOQ Tests 43.3.14. Auto-configured Data MongoDB Tests 43.3.15. Auto-configured Data Neo4j Tests 43.3.16. Auto-configured Data Redis Tests 43.3.17. Auto-configured Data LDAP Tests 43.3.18. Auto-configured REST Clients 43.3.19. Auto-configured Spring REST Docs Tests Auto-configured Spring REST Docs Tests with Mock MVC Auto-configured Spring REST Docs Tests with REST Assured 43.3.20. User Configuration and Slicing 43.3.21. Using Spock to Test Spring Boot Applications 43.4. Test Utilities 43.4.1. ConfigFileApplicationContextInitializer 43.4.2. TestPropertyValues 43.4.3. OutputCapture 43.4.4. TestRestTemplate 44. WebSockets 45. Web Services 46. Creating Your Own Auto-configuration 46.1. Understanding Auto-configured Beans 46.2. Locating Auto-configuration Candidates 46.3. Condition Annotations 46.3.1. Class Conditions 46.3.2. Bean Conditions 46.3.3. Property Conditions 46.3.4. Resource Conditions 46.3.5. Web Application Conditions 46.3.6. SpEL Expression Conditions 46.4. Testing your Auto-configuration 46.4.1. Simulating a Web Context 46.4.2. Overriding the Classpath 46.5. Creating Your Own Starter 46.5.1. Naming 46.5.2. autoconfigure Module 46.5.3. Starter Module 47. Kotlin support 47.1. Requirements 47.2. Null-safety 47.3. Kotlin API 47.3.1. runApplication 47.3.2. Extensions 47.4. Dependency management 47.5. @ConfigurationProperties 47.6. Testing 47.7. Resources 47.7.1. Further reading 47.7.2. Examples 48. What to Read Next V. Spring Boot Actuator: Production-ready features 49. Enabling Production-ready Features 50. Endpoints 50.1. Enabling Endpoints 50.2. Exposing Endpoints 50.3. Securing HTTP Endpoints 50.4. Configuring Endpoints 50.5. Hypermedia for Actuator Web Endpoints 50.6. Actuator Web Endpoint Paths 50.7. CORS Support 50.8. Implementing Custom Endpoints 50.8.1. Receiving Input Input type conversion 50.8.2. Custom Web Endpoints Web Endpoint Request Predicates Path HTTP method Consumes Produces Web Endpoint Response Status Web Endpoint Range Requests Web Endpoint Security 50.8.3. Servlet endpoints 50.8.4. Controller endpoints 50.9. Health Information 50.9.1. Auto-configured HealthIndicators 50.9.2. Writing Custom HealthIndicators 50.9.3. Reactive Health Indicators 50.9.4. Auto-configured ReactiveHealthIndicators 50.10. Application Information 50.10.1. Auto-configured InfoContributors 50.10.2. Custom Application Information 50.10.3. Git Commit Information 50.10.4. Build Information 50.10.5. Writing Custom InfoContributors 51. Monitoring and Management over HTTP 51.1. Customizing the Management Endpoint Paths 51.2. Customizing the Management Server Port 51.3. Configuring Management-specific SSL 51.4. Customizing the Management Server Address 51.5. Disabling HTTP Endpoints 52. Monitoring and Management over JMX 52.1. Customizing MBean Names 52.2. Disabling JMX Endpoints 52.3. Using Jolokia for JMX over HTTP 52.3.1. Customizing Jolokia 52.3.2. Disabling Jolokia 53. Loggers 53.1. Configure a Logger 54. Metrics 54.1. Getting started 54.2. Supported monitoring systems 54.2.1. Atlas 54.2.2. Datadog 54.2.3. Ganglia 54.2.4. Graphite 54.2.5. Influx 54.2.6. JMX 54.2.7. New Relic 54.2.8. Prometheus 54.2.9. SignalFx 54.2.10. Simple 54.2.11. StatsD 54.2.12. Wavefront 54.3. Supported Metrics 54.3.1. Spring MVC Metrics 54.3.2. Spring WebFlux Metrics 54.3.3. RestTemplate Metrics 54.3.4. Cache Metrics 54.3.5. DataSource Metrics 54.3.6. RabbitMQ Metrics 54.4. Registering custom metrics 54.5. Customizing individual metrics 54.5.1. Per-meter properties 54.6. Metrics endpoint 55. Auditing 56. HTTP Tracing 56.1. Custom HTTP tracing 57. Process Monitoring 57.1. Extending Configuration 57.2. Programmatically 58. Cloud Foundry Support 58.1. Disabling Extended Cloud Foundry Actuator Support 58.2. Cloud Foundry Self-signed Certificates 58.3. Custom context path 59. What to Read Next VI. Deploying Spring Boot Applications 60. Deploying to the Cloud 60.1. Cloud Foundry 60.1.1. Binding to Services 60.2. Heroku 60.3. OpenShift 60.4. Amazon Web Services (AWS) 60.4.1. AWS Elastic Beanstalk Using the Tomcat Platform Using the Java SE Platform 60.4.2. Summary 60.5. Boxfuse and Amazon Web Services 60.6. Google Cloud 61. Installing Spring Boot Applications 61.1. Supported Operating Systems 61.2. Unix/Linux Services 61.2.1. Installation as an init.d Service (System V) Securing an init.d Service 61.2.2. Installation as a systemd Service 61.2.3. Customizing the Startup Script Customizing the Start Script when It Is Written Customizing a Script When It Runs 61.3. Microsoft Windows Services 62. What to Read Next VII. Spring Boot CLI 63. Installing the CLI 64. Using the CLI 64.1. Running Applications with the CLI 64.1.1. Deduced “grab” Dependencies 64.1.2. Deduced “grab” Coordinates 64.1.3. Default Import Statements 64.1.4. Automatic Main Method 64.1.5. Custom Dependency Management 64.2. Applications with Multiple Source Files 64.3. Packaging Your Application 64.4. Initialize a New Project 64.5. Using the Embedded Shell 64.6. Adding Extensions to the CLI 65. Developing Applications with the Groovy Beans DSL 66. Configuring the CLI with settings.xml 67. What to Read Next VIII. Build tool plugins 68. Spring Boot Maven Plugin 68.1. Including the Plugin 68.2. Packaging Executable Jar and War Files 69. Spring Boot Gradle Plugin 70. Spring Boot AntLib Module 70.1. Spring Boot Ant Tasks 70.1.1. spring-boot:exejar 70.1.2. Examples 70.2. spring-boot:findmainclass 70.2.1. Examples 71. Supporting Other Build Systems 71.1. Repackaging Archives 71.2. Nested Libraries 71.3. Finding a Main Class 71.4. Example Repackage Implementation 72. What to Read Next IX. ‘How-to’ guides 73. Spring Boot Application 73.1. Create Your Own FailureAnalyzer 73.2. Troubleshoot Auto-configuration 73.3. Customize the Environment or ApplicationContext Before It Starts 73.4. Build an ApplicationContext Hierarchy (Adding a Parent or Root Context) 73.5. Create a Non-web Application 74. Properties and Configuration 74.1. Automatically Expand Properties at Build Time 74.1.1. Automatic Property Expansion Using Maven 74.1.2. Automatic Property Expansion Using Gradle 74.2. Externalize the Configuration of SpringApplication 74.3. Change the Location of External Properties of an Application 74.4. Use ‘Short’ Command Line Arguments 74.5. Use YAML for External Properties 74.6. Set the Active Spring Profiles 74.7. Change Configuration Depending on the Environment 74.8. Discover Built-in Options for External Properties 75. Embedded Web Servers 75.1. Use Another Web Server 75.2. Disabling the Web Server 75.3. Configure Jetty 75.4. Add a Servlet, Filter, or Listener to an Application 75.4.1. Add a Servlet, Filter, or Listener by Using a Spring Bean Disable Registration of a Servlet or Filter 75.4.2. Add Servlets, Filters, and Listeners by Using Classpath Scanning 75.5. Change the HTTP Port 75.6. Use a Random Unassigned HTTP Port 75.7. Discover the HTTP Port at Runtime 75.8. Configure SSL 75.9. Configure HTTP/2 75.9.1. HTTP/2 with Undertow 75.9.2. HTTP/2 with Jetty 75.9.3. HTTP/2 with Tomcat 75.10. Configure Access Logging 75.11. Running Behind a Front-end Proxy Server 75.11.1. Customize Tomcat’s Proxy Configuration 75.12. Configure Tomcat 75.13. Enable Multiple Connectors with Tomcat 75.14. Use Tomcat’s LegacyCookieProcessor 75.15. Configure Undertow 75.16. Enable Multiple Listeners with Undertow 75.17. Create WebSocket Endpoints Using @ServerEndpoint 75.18. Enable HTTP Response Compression 76. Spring MVC 76.1. Write a JSON REST Service 76.2. Write an XML REST Service 76.3. Customize the Jackson ObjectMapper 76.4. Customize the @ResponseBody Rendering 76.5. Handling Multipart File Uploads 76.6. Switch Off the Spring MVC DispatcherServlet 76.7. Switch off the Default MVC Configuration 76.8. Customize ViewResolvers 77. HTTP Clients 77.1. Configure RestTemplate to Use a Proxy 78. Logging 78.1. Configure Logback for Logging 78.1.1. Configure Logback for File-only Output 78.2. Configure Log4j for Logging 78.2.1. Use YAML or JSON to Configure Log4j 2 79. Data Access 79.1. Configure a Custom DataSource 79.2. Configure Two DataSources 79.3. Use Spring Data Repositories 79.4. Separate @Entity Definitions from Spring Configuration 79.5. Configure JPA Properties 79.6. Configure Hibernate Naming Strategy 79.7. Use a Custom EntityManagerFactory 79.8. Use Two EntityManagers 79.9. Use a Traditional persistence.xml File 79.10. Use Spring Data JPA and Mongo Repositories 79.11. Expose Spring Data Repositories as REST Endpoint 79.12. Configure a Component that is Used by JPA 79.13. Configure jOOQ with Two DataSources 80. Database Initialization 80.1. Initialize a Database Using JPA 80.2. Initialize a Database Using Hibernate 80.3. Initialize a Database 80.4. Initialize a Spring Batch Database 80.5. Use a Higher-level Database Migration Tool 80.5.1. Execute Flyway Database Migrations on Startup 80.5.2. Execute Liquibase Database Migrations on Startup 81. Messaging 81.1. Disable Transacted JMS Session 82. Batch Applications 82.1. Execute Spring Batch Jobs on Startup 83. Actuator 83.1. Change the HTTP Port or Address of the Actuator Endpoints 83.2. Customize the ‘whitelabel’ Error Page 84. Security 84.1. Switch off the Spring Boot Security Configuration 84.2. Change the UserDetailsService and Add User Accounts 84.3. Enable HTTPS When Running behind a Proxy Server 85. Hot Swapping 85.1. Reload Static Content 85.2. Reload Templates without Restarting the Container 85.2.1. Thymeleaf Templates 85.2.2. FreeMarker Templates 85.2.3. Groovy Templates 85.3. Fast Application Restarts 85.4. Reload Java Classes without Restarting the Container 86. Build 86.1. Generate Build Information 86.2. Generate Git Information 86.3. Customize Dependency Versions 86.4. Create an Executable JAR with Maven 86.5. Use a Spring Boot Application as a Dependency 86.6. Extract Specific Libraries When an Executable Jar Runs 86.7. Create a Non-executable JAR with Exclusions 86.8. Remote Debug a Spring Boot Application Started with Maven 86.9. Build an Executable Archive from Ant without Using spring-boot-antlib 87. Traditional Deployment 87.1. Create a Deployable War File 87.2. Convert an Existing Application to Spring Boot 87.3. Deploying a WAR to WebLogic 87.4. Use Jedis Instead of Lettuce X. Appendices A. Common application properties B. Configuration Metadata B.1. Metadata Format B.1.1. Group Attributes B.1.2. Property Attributes B.1.3. Hint Attributes B.1.4. Repeated Metadata Items B.2. Providing Manual Hints B.2.1. Value Hint B.2.2. Value Providers Any Class Reference Handle As Logger Name Spring Bean Reference Spring Profile Name B.3. Generating Your Own Metadata by Using the Annotation Processor B.3.1. Nested Properties B.3.2. Adding Additional Metadata C. Auto-configuration classes C.1. From the “spring-boot-autoconfigure” module C.2. From the “spring-boot-actuator-autoconfigure” module D. Test auto-configuration annotations E. The Executable Jar Format E.1. Nested JARs E.1.1. The Executable Jar File Structure E.1.2. The Executable War File Structure E.2. Spring Boot’s “JarFile” Class E.2.1. Compatibility with the Standard Java “JarFile” E.3. Launching Executable Jars E.3.1. Launcher Manifest E.3.2. Exploded Archives E.4. PropertiesLauncher Features E.5. Executable Jar Restrictions E.6. Alternative Single Jar Solutions F. Dependency versions
python3.6.5参考手册 chm
Python参考手册，官方正式版参考手册，chm版。以下摘取部分内容:Navigation index modules | next | Python » 3.6.5 Documentation » Python Documentation contents What’s New in Python What’s New In Python 3.6 Summary – Release highlights New Features PEP 498: Formatted string literals PEP 526: Syntax for variable annotations PEP 515: Underscores in Numeric Literals PEP 525: Asynchronous Generators PEP 530: Asynchronous Comprehensions PEP 487: Simpler customization of class creation PEP 487: Descriptor Protocol Enhancements PEP 519: Adding a file system path protocol PEP 495: Local Time Disambiguation PEP 529: Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8 PEP 528: Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8 PEP 520: Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order PEP 468: Preserving Keyword Argument Order New dict implementation PEP 523: Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython PYTHONMALLOC environment variable DTrace and SystemTap probing support Other Language Changes New Modules secrets Improved Modules array ast asyncio binascii cmath collections concurrent.futures contextlib datetime decimal distutils email encodings enum faulthandler fileinput hashlib http.client idlelib and IDLE importlib inspect json logging math multiprocessing os pathlib pdb pickle pickletools pydoc random re readline rlcompleter shlex site sqlite3 socket socketserver ssl statistics struct subprocess sys telnetlib time timeit tkinter traceback tracemalloc typing unicodedata unittest.mock urllib.request urllib.robotparser venv warnings winreg winsound xmlrpc.client zipfile zlib Optimizations Build and C API Changes Other Improvements Deprecated New Keywords Deprecated Python behavior Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods asynchat asyncore dbm distutils grp importlib os re ssl tkinter venv Deprecated functions and types of the C API Deprecated Build Options Removed API and Feature Removals Porting to Python 3.6 Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior Changes in the Python API Changes in the C API CPython bytecode changes Notable changes in Python 3.6.2 New make regen-all build target Removal of make touch build target Notable changes in Python 3.6.5 What’s New In Python 3.5 Summary – Release highlights New Features PEP 492 - Coroutines with async and await syntax PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations PEP 461 - percent formatting support for bytes and bytearray PEP 484 - Type Hints PEP 471 - os.scandir() function – a better and faster directory iterator PEP 475: Retry system calls failing with EINTR PEP 479: Change StopIteration handling inside generators PEP 485: A function for testing approximate equality PEP 486: Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments PEP 488: Elimination of PYO files PEP 489: Multi-phase extension module initialization Other Language Changes New Modules typing zipapp Improved Modules argparse asyncio bz2 cgi cmath code collections collections.abc compileall concurrent.futures configparser contextlib csv curses dbm difflib distutils doctest email enum faulthandler functools glob gzip heapq http http.client idlelib and IDLE imaplib imghdr importlib inspect io ipaddress json linecache locale logging lzma math multiprocessing operator os pathlib pickle poplib re readline selectors shutil signal smtpd smtplib sndhdr socket ssl Memory BIO Support Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation Support Other Changes sqlite3 subprocess sys sysconfig tarfile threading time timeit tkinter traceback types unicodedata unittest unittest.mock urllib wsgiref xmlrpc xml.sax zipfile Other module-level changes Optimizations Build and C API Changes Deprecated New Keywords Deprecated Python Behavior Unsupported Operating Systems Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods Removed API and Feature Removals Porting to Python 3.5 Changes in Python behavior Changes in the Python API Changes in the C API What’s New In Python 3.4 Summary – Release Highlights New Features PEP 453: Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations Bootstrapping pip By Default Documentation Changes PEP 446: Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable Improvements to Codec Handling PEP 451: A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System Other Language Changes New Modules asyncio ensurepip enum pathlib selectors statistics tracemalloc Improved Modules abc aifc argparse audioop base64 collections colorsys contextlib dbm dis doctest email filecmp functools gc glob hashlib hmac html http idlelib and IDLE importlib inspect ipaddress logging marshal mmap multiprocessing operator os pdb pickle plistlib poplib pprint pty pydoc re resource select shelve shutil smtpd smtplib socket sqlite3 ssl stat struct subprocess sunau sys tarfile textwrap threading traceback types urllib unittest venv wave weakref xml.etree zipfile CPython Implementation Changes PEP 445: Customization of CPython Memory Allocators PEP 442: Safe Object Finalization PEP 456: Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm PEP 436: Argument Clinic Other Build and C API Changes Other Improvements Significant Optimizations Deprecated Deprecations in the Python API Deprecated Features Removed Operating Systems No Longer Supported API and Feature Removals Code Cleanups Porting to Python 3.4 Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior Changes in the Python API Changes in the C API Changed in 3.4.3 PEP 476: Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients What’s New In Python 3.3 Summary – Release highlights PEP 405: Virtual Environments PEP 420: Implicit Namespace Packages PEP 3118: New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation Features API changes PEP 393: Flexible String Representation Functionality Performance and resource usage PEP 397: Python Launcher for Windows PEP 3151: Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy PEP 380: Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator PEP 409: Suppressing exception context PEP 414: Explicit Unicode literals PEP 3155: Qualified name for classes and functions PEP 412: Key-Sharing Dictionary PEP 362: Function Signature Object PEP 421: Adding sys.implementation SimpleNamespace Using importlib as the Implementation of Import New APIs Visible Changes Other Language Changes A Finer-Grained Import Lock Builtin functions and types New Modules faulthandler ipaddress lzma Improved Modules abc array base64 binascii bz2 codecs collections contextlib crypt curses datetime decimal Features API changes email Policy Framework Provisional Policy with New Header API Other API Changes ftplib functools gc hmac http html imaplib inspect io itertools logging math mmap multiprocessing nntplib os pdb pickle pydoc re sched select shlex shutil signal smtpd smtplib socket socketserver sqlite3 ssl stat struct subprocess sys tarfile tempfile textwrap threading time types unittest urllib webbrowser xml.etree.ElementTree zlib Optimizations Build and C API Changes Deprecated Unsupported Operating Systems Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods Deprecated functions and types of the C API Deprecated features Porting to Python 3.3 Porting Python code Porting C code Building C extensions Command Line Switch Changes What’s New In Python 3.2 PEP 384: Defining a Stable ABI PEP 389: Argparse Command Line Parsing Module PEP 391: Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging PEP 3148: The concurrent.futures module PEP 3147: PYC Repository Directories PEP 3149: ABI Version Tagged .so Files PEP 3333: Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0.1 Other Language Changes New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules email elementtree functools itertools collections threading datetime and time math abc io reprlib logging csv contextlib decimal and fractions ftp popen select gzip and zipfile tarfile hashlib ast os shutil sqlite3 html socket ssl nntp certificates imaplib http.client unittest random poplib asyncore tempfile inspect pydoc dis dbm ctypes site sysconfig pdb configparser urllib.parse mailbox turtledemo Multi-threading Optimizations Unicode Codecs Documentation IDLE Code Repository Build and C API Changes Porting to Python 3.2 What’s New In Python 3.1 PEP 372: Ordered Dictionaries PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator Other Language Changes New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules Optimizations IDLE Build and C API Changes Porting to Python 3.1 What’s New In Python 3.0 Common Stumbling Blocks Print Is A Function Views And Iterators Instead Of Lists Ordering Comparisons Integers Text Vs. Data Instead Of Unicode Vs. 8-bit Overview Of Syntax Changes New Syntax Changed Syntax Removed Syntax Changes Already Present In Python 2.6 Library Changes PEP 3101: A New Approach To String Formatting Changes To Exceptions Miscellaneous Other Changes Operators And Special Methods Builtins Build and C API Changes Performance Porting To Python 3.0 What’s New in Python 2.7 The Future for Python 2.x Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings Python 3.1 Features PEP 372: Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator PEP 389: The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines PEP 391: Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging PEP 3106: Dictionary Views PEP 3137: The memoryview Object Other Language Changes Interpreter Changes Optimizations New and Improved Modules New module: importlib New module: sysconfig ttk: Themed Widgets for Tk Updated module: unittest Updated module: ElementTree 1.3 Build and C API Changes Capsules Port-Specific Changes: Windows Port-Specific Changes: Mac OS X Port-Specific Changes: FreeBSD Other Changes and Fixes Porting to Python 2.7 New Features Added to Python 2.7 Maintenance Releases PEP 434: IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches PEP 466: Network Security Enhancements for Python 2.7 Acknowledgements What’s New in Python 2.6 Python 3.0 Changes to the Development Process New Issue Tracker: Roundup New Documentation Format: reStructuredText Using Sphinx PEP 343: The ‘with’ statement Writing Context Managers The contextlib module PEP 366: Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module PEP 370: Per-user site-packages Directory PEP 371: The multiprocessing Package PEP 3101: Advanced String Formatting PEP 3105: print As a Function PEP 3110: Exception-Handling Changes PEP 3112: Byte Literals PEP 3116: New I/O Library PEP 3118: Revised Buffer Protocol PEP 3119: Abstract Base Classes PEP 3127: Integer Literal Support and Syntax PEP 3129: Class Decorators PEP 3141: A Type Hierarchy for Numbers The fractions Module Other Language Changes Optimizations Interpreter Changes New and Improved Modules The ast module The future_builtins module The json module: JavaScript Object Notation The plistlib module: A Property-List Parser ctypes Enhancements Improved SSL Support Deprecations and Removals Build and C API Changes Port-Specific Changes: Windows Port-Specific Changes: Mac OS X Port-Specific Changes: IRIX Porting to Python 2.6 Acknowledgements What’s New in Python 2.5 PEP 308: Conditional Expressions PEP 309: Partial Function Application PEP 314: Metadata for Python Software Packages v1.1 PEP 328: Absolute and Relative Imports PEP 338: Executing Modules as Scripts PEP 341: Unified try/except/finally PEP 342: New Generator Features PEP 343: The ‘with’ statement Writing Context Managers The contextlib module PEP 352: Exceptions as New-Style Classes PEP 353: Using ssize_t as the index type PEP 357: The ‘__index__’ method Other Language Changes Interactive Interpreter Changes Optimizations New, Improved, and Removed Modules The ctypes package The ElementTree package The hashlib package The sqlite3 package The wsgiref package Build and C API Changes Port-Specific Changes Porting to Python 2.5 Acknowledgements What’s New in Python 2.4 PEP 218: Built-In Set Objects PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers PEP 289: Generator Expressions PEP 292: Simpler String Substitutions PEP 318: Decorators for Functions and Methods PEP 322: Reverse Iteration PEP 324: New subprocess Module PEP 327: Decimal Data Type Why is Decimal needed? The Decimal type The Context type PEP 328: Multi-line Imports PEP 331: Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions Other Language Changes Optimizations New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules cookielib doctest Build and C API Changes Port-Specific Changes Porting to Python 2.4 Acknowledgements What’s New in Python 2.3 PEP 218: A Standard Set Datatype PEP 255: Simple Generators PEP 263: Source Code Encodings PEP 273: Importing Modules from ZIP Archives PEP 277: Unicode file name support for Windows NT PEP 278: Universal Newline Support PEP 279: enumerate() PEP 282: The logging Package PEP 285: A Boolean Type PEP 293: Codec Error Handling Callbacks PEP 301: Package Index and Metadata for Distutils PEP 302: New Import Hooks PEP 305: Comma-separated Files PEP 307: Pickle Enhancements Extended Slices Other Language Changes String Changes Optimizations New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules Date/Time Type The optparse Module Pymalloc: A Specialized Object Allocator Build and C API Changes Port-Specific Changes Other Changes and Fixes Porting to Python 2.3 Acknowledgements What’s New in Python 2.2 Introduction PEPs 252 and 253: Type and Class Changes Old and New Classes Descriptors Multiple Inheritance: The Diamond Rule Attribute Access Related Links PEP 234: Iterators PEP 255: Simple Generators PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers PEP 238: Changing the Division Operator Unicode Changes PEP 227: Nested Scopes New and Improved Modules Interpreter Changes and Fixes Other Changes and Fixes Acknowledgements What’s New in Python 2.1 Introduction PEP 227: Nested Scopes PEP 236: __future__ Directives PEP 207: Rich Comparisons PEP 230: Warning Framework PEP 229: New Build System PEP 205: Weak References PEP 232: Function Attributes PEP 235: Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms PEP 217: Interactive Display Hook PEP 208: New Coercion Model PEP 241: Metadata in Python Packages New and Improved Modules Other Changes and Fixes Acknowledgements What’s New in Python 2.0 Introduction What About Python 1.6? New Development Process Unicode List Comprehensions Augmented Assignment String Methods Garbage Collection of Cycles Other Core Changes Minor Language Changes Changes to Built-in Functions Porting to 2.0 Extending/Embedding Changes Distutils: Making Modules Easy to Install XML Modules SAX2 Support DOM Support Relationship to PyXML Module changes New modules IDLE Improvements Deleted and Deprecated Modules Acknowledgements Changelog Python 3.6.5 final? Tests Build Python 3.6.5 release candidate 1? Security Core and Builtins Library Documentation Tests Build Windows macOS IDLE Tools/Demos C API Python 3.6.4 final? Python 3.6.4 release candidate 1? Core and Builtins Library Documentation Tests Build Windows macOS IDLE Tools/Demos C API Python 3.6.3 final? Library Build Python 3.6.3 release candidate 1? Security Core and Builtins Library Documentation Tests Build Windows IDLE Tools/Demos Python 3.6.2 final? Python 3.6.2 release candidate 2? Security Python 3.6.2 release candidate 1? Core and Builtins Library Security Library IDLE C API Build Documentation Tools/Demos Tests Windows Python 3.6.1 final? Core and Builtins Build Python 3.6.1 release candidate 1? Core and Builtins Library IDLE Windows C API Documentation Tests Build Python 3.6.0 final? Python 3.6.0 release candidate 2? Core and Builtins Tools/Demos Windows Build Python 3.6.0 release candidate 1? Core and Builtins Library C API Documentation Tools/Demos Python 3.6.0 beta 4? Core and Builtins Library Documentation Tests Build Python 3.6.0 beta 3? Core and Builtins Library Windows Build Tests Python 3.6.0 beta 2? Core and Builtins Library Windows C API Build Tests Python 3.6.0 beta 1? Core and Builtins Library IDLE C API Tests Build Tools/Demos Windows Python 3.6.0 alpha 4? Core and Builtins Library IDLE Tests Windows Build Python 3.6.0 alpha 3? Core and Builtins Library Security Library Security Library IDLE C API Build Tools/Demos Documentation Tests Python 3.6.0 alpha 2? Core and Builtins Library Security Library Security Library IDLE Documentation Tests Windows Build Windows C API Tools/Demos Python 3.6.0 alpha 1? Core and Builtins Library Security Library Security Library Security Library IDLE Documentation Tests Build Windows Tools/Demos C API Python 3.5.3 final? Python 3.5.3 release candidate 1? Core and Builtins Library Security Library Security Library IDLE C API Documentation Tests Tools/Demos Windows Build Python 3.5.2 final? Core and Builtins Tests IDLE Python 3.5.2 release candidate 1? Core and Builtins Security Library Security Library Security Library Security Library Security Library IDLE Documentation Tests Build Windows Tools/Demos Windows Python 3.5.1 final? Core and Builtins Windows Python 3.5.1 release candidate 1? Core and Builtins Library IDLE Documentation Tests Build Windows Tools/Demos Python 3.5.0 final? Build Python 3.5.0 release candidate 4? Library Build Python 3.5.0 release candidate 3? Core and Builtins Library Python 3.5.0 release candidate 2? Core and Builtins Library Python 3.5.0 release candidate 1? Core and Builtins Library IDLE Documentation Tests Python 3.5.0 beta 4? Core and Builtins Library Build Python 3.5.0 beta 3? Core and Builtins Library Tests Documentation Build Python 3.5.0 beta 2? Core and Builtins Library Python 3.5.0 beta 1? Core and Builtins Library IDLE Tests Documentation Tools/Demos Python 3.5.0 alpha 4? Core and Builtins Library Build Tests Tools/Demos C API Python 3.5.0 alpha 3? Core and Builtins Library Build Tests Tools/Demos Python 3.5.0 alpha 2? Core and Builtins Library Build C API Windows Python 3.5.0 alpha 1? Core and Builtins Library IDLE Build C API Documentation Tests Tools/Demos Windows The Python Tutorial 1. Whetting Your Appetite 2. Using the Python Interpreter 2.1. Invoking the Interpreter 2.1.1. Argument Passing 2.1.2. Interactive Mode 2.2. The Interpreter and Its Environment 2.2.1. Source Code Encoding 3. An Informal Introduction to Python 3.1. Using Python as a Calculator 3.1.1. Numbers 3.1.2. Strings 3.1.3. Lists 3.2. First Steps Towards Programming 4. More Control Flow Tools 4.1. if Statements 4.2. for Statements 4.3. The range() Function 4.4. break and continue Statements, and else Clauses on Loops 4.5. pass Statements 4.6. Defining Functions 4.7. More on Defining Functions 4.7.1. Default Argument Values 4.7.2. Keyword Arguments 4.7.3. Arbitrary Argument Lists 4.7.4. Unpacking Argument Lists 4.7.5. Lambda Expressions 4.7.6. Documentation Strings 4.7.7. Function Annotations 4.8. Intermezzo: Coding Style 5. Data Structures 5.1. More on Lists 5.1.1. Using Lists as Stacks 5.1.2. Using Lists as Queues 5.1.3. List Comprehensions 5.1.4. Nested List Comprehensions 5.2. The del statement 5.3. Tuples and Sequences 5.4. Sets 5.5. Dictionaries 5.6. Looping Techniques 5.7. More on Conditions 5.8. Comparing Sequences and Other Types 6. Modules 6.1. More on Modules 6.1.1. Executing modules as scripts 6.1.2. The Module Search Path 6.1.3. “Compiled” Python files 6.2. Standard Modules 6.3. The dir() Function 6.4. Packages 6.4.1. Importing * From a Package 6.4.2. Intra-package References 6.4.3. Packages in Multiple Directories 7. Input and Output 7.1. Fancier Output Formatting 7.1.1. Old string formatting 7.2. Reading and Writing Files 7.2.1. Methods of File Objects 7.2.2. Saving structured data with json 8. Errors and Exceptions 8.1. Syntax Errors 8.2. Exceptions 8.3. Handling Exceptions 8.4. Raising Exceptions 8.5. User-defined Exceptions 8.6. Defining Clean-up Actions 8.7. Predefined Clean-up Actions 9. Classes 9.1. A Word About Names and Objects 9.2. Python Scopes and Namespaces 9.2.1. Scopes and Namespaces Example 9.3. A First Look at Classes 9.3.1. Class Definition Syntax 9.3.2. Class Objects 9.3.3. Instance Objects 9.3.4. Method Objects 9.3.5. Class and Instance Variables 9.4. Random Remarks 9.5. Inheritance 9.5.1. Multiple Inheritance 9.6. Private Variables 9.7. Odds and Ends 9.8. Iterators 9.9. Generators 9.10. Generator Expressions 10. Brief Tour of the Standard Library 10.1. Operating System Interface 10.2. File Wildcards 10.3. Command Line Arguments 10.4. Error Output Redirection and Program Termination 10.5. String Pattern Matching 10.6. Mathematics 10.7. Internet Access 10.8. Dates and Times 10.9. Data Compression 10.10. Performance Measurement 10.11. Quality Control 10.12. Batteries Included 11. Brief Tour of the Standard Library — Part II 11.1. Output Formatting 11.2. Templating 11.3. Working with Binary Data Record Layouts 11.4. Multi-threading 11.5. Logging 11.6. Weak References 11.7. Tools for Working with Lists 11.8. Decimal Floating Point Arithmetic 12. Virtual Environments and Packages 12.1. Introduction 12.2. Creating Virtual Environments 12.3. Managing Packages with pip 13. What Now? 14. Interactive Input Editing and History Substitution 14.1. Tab Completion and History Editing 14.2. Alternatives to the Interactive Interpreter 15. Floating Point Arithmetic: Issues and Limitations 15.1. Representation Error 16. Appendix 16.1. Interactive Mode 16.1.1. Error Handling 16.1.2. Executable Python Scripts 16.1.3. The Interactive Startup File 16.1.4. The Customization Modules Python Setup and Usage 1. Command line and environment 1.1. Command line 1.1.1. Interface options 1.1.2. Generic options 1.1.3. Miscellaneous options 1.1.4. Options you shouldn’t use 1.2. Environment variables 1.2.1. Debug-mode variables 2. Using Python on Unix platforms 2.1. Getting and installing the latest version of Python 2.1.1. On Linux 2.1.2. On FreeBSD and OpenBSD 2.1.3. On OpenSolaris 2.2. Building Python 2.3. Python-related paths and files 2.4. Miscellaneous 2.5. Editors and IDEs 3. Using Python on Windows 3.1. Installing Python 3.1.1. Supported Versions 3.1.2. Installation Steps 3.1.3. Removing the MAX_PATH Limitation 3.1.4. Installing Without UI 3.1.5. Installing Without Downloading 3.1.6. Modifying an install 3.1.7. Other Platforms 3.2. Alternative bundles 3.3. Configuring Python 3.3.1. Excursus: Setting environment variables 3.3.2. Finding the Python executable 3.4. Python Launcher for Windows 3.4.1. Getting started 3.4.1.1. From the command-line 3.4.1.2. Virtual environments 3.4.1.3. From a script 3.4.1.4. From file associations 3.4.2. Shebang Lines 3.4.3. Arguments in shebang lines 3.4.4. Customization 3.4.4.1. Customization via INI files 3.4.4.2. Customizing default Python versions 3.4.5. Diagnostics 3.5. Finding modules 3.6. Additional modules 3.6.1. PyWin32 3.6.2. cx_Freeze 3.6.3. WConio 3.7. Compiling Python on Windows 3.8. Embedded Distribution 3.8.1. Python Application 3.8.2. Embedding Python 3.9. Other resources 4. Using Python on a Macintosh 4.1. Getting and Installing MacPython 4.1.1. How to run a Python script 4.1.2. Running scripts with a GUI 4.1.3. Configuration 4.2. The IDE 4.3. Installing Additional Python Packages 4.4. GUI Programming on the Mac 4.5. Distributing Python Applications on the Mac 4.6. Other Resources The Python Language Reference 1. Introduction 1.1. Alternate Implementations 1.2. Notation 2. Lexical analysis 2.1. Line structure 2.1.1. Logical lines 2.1.2. Physical lines 2.1.3. Comments 2.1.4. Encoding declarations 2.1.5. Explicit line joining 2.1.6. Implicit line joining 2.1.7. Blank lines 2.1.8. Indentation 2.1.9. Whitespace between tokens 2.2. Other tokens 2.3. Identifiers and keywords 2.3.1. Keywords 2.3.2. Reserved classes of identifiers 2.4. Literals 2.4.1. String and Bytes literals 2.4.2. String literal concatenation 2.4.3. Formatted string literals 2.4.4. Numeric literals 2.4.5. Integer literals 2.4.6. Floating point literals 2.4.7. Imaginary literals 2.5. Operators 2.6. Delimiters 3. Data model 3.1. Objects, values and types 3.2. The standard type hierarchy 3.3. Special method names 3.3.1. Basic customization 3.3.2. Customizing attribute access 3.3.2.1. Customizing module attribute access 3.3.2.2. Implementing Descriptors 3.3.2.3. Invoking Descriptors 3.3.2.4. __slots__ 3.3.2.4.1. Notes on using __slots__ 3.3.3. Customizing class creation 3.3.3.1. Metaclasses 3.3.3.2. Determining the appropriate metaclass 3.3.3.3. Preparing the class namespace 3.3.3.4. Executing the class body 3.3.3.5. Creating the class object 3.3.3.6. Metaclass example 3.3.4. Customizing instance and subclass checks 3.3.5. Emulating callable objects 3.3.6. Emulating container types 3.3.7. Emulating numeric types 3.3.8. With Statement Context Managers 3.3.9. Special method lookup 3.4. Coroutines 3.4.1. Awaitable Objects 3.4.2. Coroutine Objects 3.4.3. Asynchronous Iterators 3.4.4. Asynchronous Context Managers 4. Execution model 4.1. Structure of a program 4.2. Naming and binding 4.2.1. Binding of names 4.2.2. Resolution of names 4.2.3. Builtins and restricted execution 4.2.4. Interaction with dynamic features 4.3. Exceptions 5. The import system 5.1. importlib 5.2. Packages 5.2.1. Regular packages 5.2.2. Namespace packages 5.3. Searching 5.3.1. The module cache 5.3.2. Finders and loaders 5.3.3. Import hooks 5.3.4. The meta path 5.4. Loading 5.4.1. Loaders 5.4.2. Submodules 5.4.3. Module spec 5.4.4. Import-related module attributes 5.4.5. module.__path__ 5.4.6. Module reprs 5.5. The Path Based Finder 5.5.1. Path entry finders 5.5.2. Path entry finder protocol 5.6. Replacing the standard import system 5.7. Special considerations for __main__ 5.7.1. __main__.__spec__ 5.8. Open issues 5.9. References 6. Expressions 6.1. Arithmetic conversions 6.2. Atoms 6.2.1. Identifiers (Names) 6.2.2. Literals 6.2.3. Parenthesized forms 6.2.4. Displays for lists, sets and dictionaries 6.2.5. List displays 6.2.6. Set displays 6.2.7. Dictionary displays 6.2.8. Generator expressions 6.2.9. Yield expressions 6.2.9.1. Generator-iterator methods 6.2.9.2. Examples 6.2.9.3. Asynchronous generator functions 6.2.9.4. Asynchronous generator-iterator methods 6.3. Primaries 6.3.1. Attribute references 6.3.2. Subscriptions 6.3.3. Slicings 6.3.4. Calls 6.4. Await expression 6.5. The power operator 6.6. Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations 6.7. Binary arithmetic operations 6.8. Shifting operations 6.9. Binary bitwise operations 6.10. Comparisons 6.10.1. Value comparisons 6.10.2. Membership test operations 6.10.3. Identity comparisons 6.11. Boolean operations 6.12. Conditional expressions 6.13. Lambdas 6.14. Expression lists 6.15. Evaluation order 6.16. Operator precedence 7. Simple statements 7.1. Expression statements 7.2. Assignment statements 7.2.1. Augmented assignment statements 7.2.2. Annotated assignment statements 7.3. The assert statement 7.4. The pass statement 7.5. The del statement 7.6. The return statement 7.7. The yield statement 7.8. The raise statement 7.9. The break statement 7.10. The continue statement 7.11. The import statement 7.11.1. Future statements 7.12. The global statement 7.13. The nonlocal statement 8. Compound statements 8.1. The if statement 8.2. The while statement 8.3. The for statement 8.4. The try statement 8.5. The with statement 8.6. Function definitions 8.7. Class definitions 8.8. Coroutines 8.8.1. Coroutine function definition 8.8.2. The async for statement 8.8.3. The async with statement 9. Top-level components 9.1. Complete Python programs 9.2. File input 9.3. Interactive input 9.4. Expression input 10. Full Grammar specification The Python Standard Library 1. Introduction 2. Built-in Functions 3. Built-in Constants 3.1. Constants added by the site module 4. Built-in Types 4.1. Truth Value Testing 4.2. Boolean Operations — and, or, not 4.3. Comparisons 4.4. Numeric Types — int, float, complex 4.4.1. Bitwise Operations on Integer Types 4.4.2. Additional Methods on Integer Types 4.4.3. Additional Methods on Float 4.4.4. Hashing of numeric types 4.5. Iterator Types 4.5.1. Generator Types 4.6. Sequence Types — list, tuple, range 4.6.1. Common Sequence Operations 4.6.2. Immutable Sequence Types 4.6.3. Mutable Sequence Types 4.6.4. Lists 4.6.5. Tuples 4.6.6. Ranges 4.7. Text Sequence Type — str 4.7.1. String Methods 4.7.2. printf-style String Formatting 4.8. Binary Sequence Types — bytes, bytearray, memoryview 4.8.1. Bytes Objects 4.8.2. Bytearray Objects 4.8.3. Bytes and Bytearray Operations 4.8.4. printf-style Bytes Formatting 4.8.5. Memory Views 4.9. Set Types — set, frozenset 4.10. Mapping Types — dict 4.10.1. Dictionary view objects 4.11. Context Manager Types 4.12. Other Built-in Types 4.12.1. Modules 4.12.2. Classes and Class Instances 4.12.3. Functions 4.12.4. Methods 4.12.5. Code Objects 4.12.6. Type Objects 4.12.7. The Null Object 4.12.8. The Ellipsis Object 4.12.9. The NotImplemented Object 4.12.10. Boolean Values 4.12.11. Internal Objects 4.13. Special Attributes 5. Built-in Exceptions 5.1. Base classes 5.2. Concrete exceptions 5.2.1. OS exceptions 5.3. Warnings 5.4. Exception hierarchy 6. Text Processing Services 6.1. string — Common string operations 6.1.1. String constants 6.1.2. Custom String Formatting 6.1.3. Format String Syntax 6.1.3.1. Format Specification Mini-Language 6.1.3.2. Format examples 6.1.4. Template strings 6.1.5. Helper functions 6.2. re — Regular expression operations 6.2.1. Regular Expression Syntax 6.2.2. Module Contents 6.2.3. Regular Expression Objects 6.2.4. Match Objects 6.2.5. Regular Expression Examples 6.2.5.1. Checking for a Pair 6.2.5.2. Simulating scanf() 6.2.5.3. search() vs. match() 6.2.5.4. Making a Phonebook 6.2.5.5. Text Munging 6.2.5.6. Finding all Adverbs 6.2.5.7. Finding all Adverbs and their Positions 6.2.5.8. Raw String Notation 6.2.5.9. Writing a Tokenizer 6.3. difflib — Helpers for computing deltas 6.3.1. SequenceMatcher Objects 6.3.2. SequenceMatcher Examples 6.3.3. Differ Objects 6.3.4. Differ Example 6.3.5. A command-line interface to difflib 6.4. textwrap — Text wrapping and filling 6.5. unicodedata — Unicode Database 6.6. stringprep — Internet String Preparation 6.7. readline — GNU readline interface 6.7.1. Init file 6.7.2. Line buffer 6.7.3. History file 6.7.4. History list 6.7.5. Startup hooks 6.7.6. Completion 6.7.7. Example 6.8. rlcompleter — Completion function for GNU readline 6.8.1. Completer Objects 7. Binary Data Services 7.1. struct — Interpret bytes as packed binary data 7.1.1. Functions and Exceptions 7.1.2. Format Strings 7.1.2.1. Byte Order, Size, and Alignment 7.1.2.2. Format Characters 7.1.2.3. Examples 7.1.3. Classes 7.2. codecs — Codec registry and base classes 7.2.1. Codec Base Classes 7.2.1.1. Error Handlers 7.2.1.2. Stateless Encoding and Decoding 7.2.1.3. Incremental Encoding and Decoding 7.2.1.3.1. IncrementalEncoder Objects 7.2.1.3.2. IncrementalDecoder Objects 7.2.1.4. Stream Encoding and Decoding 7.2.1.4.1. StreamWriter Objects 7.2.1.4.2. StreamReader Objects 7.2.1.4.3. StreamReaderWriter Objects 7.2.1.4.4. StreamRecoder Objects 7.2.2. Encodings and Unicode 7.2.3. Standard Encodings 7.2.4. Python Specific Encodings 7.2.4.1. Text Encodings 7.2.4.2. Binary Transforms 7.2.4.3. Text Transforms 7.2.5. encodings.idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications 7.2.6. encodings.mbcs — Windows ANSI codepage 7.2.7. encodings.utf_8_sig — UTF-8 codec with BOM signature 8. Data Types 8.1. datetime — Basic date and time types 8.1.1. Available Types 8.1.2. timedelta Objects 8.1.3. date Objects 8.1.4. datetime Objects 8.1.5. time Objects 8.1.6. tzinfo Objects 8.1.7. timezone Objects 8.1.8. strftime() and strptime() Behavior 8.2. calendar — General calendar-related functions 8.3. collections — Container datatypes 8.3.1. ChainMap objects 8.3.1.1. ChainMap Examples and Recipes 8.3.2. Counter objects 8.3.3. deque objects 8.3.3.1. deque Recipes 8.3.4. defaultdict objects 8.3.4.1. defaultdict Examples 8.3.5. namedtuple() Factory Function for Tuples with Named Fields 8.3.6. OrderedDict objects 8.3.6.1. OrderedDict Examples and Recipes 8.3.7. UserDict objects 8.3.8. UserList objects 8.3.9. UserString objects 8.4. collections.abc — Abstract Base Classes for Containers 8.4.1. Collections Abstract Base Classes 8.5. heapq — Heap queue algorithm 8.5.1. Basic Examples 8.5.2. Priority Queue Implementation Notes 8.5.3. Theory 8.6. bisect — Array bisection algorithm 8.6.1. Searching Sorted Lists 8.6.2. Other Examples 8.7. array — Efficient arrays of numeric values 8.8. weakref — Weak references 8.8.1. Weak Reference Objects 8.8.2. Example 8.8.3. Finalizer Objects 8.8.4. Comparing finalizers with __del__() methods 8.9. types — Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types 8.9.1. Dynamic Type Creation 8.9.2. Standard Interpreter Types 8.9.3. Additional Utility Classes and Functions 8.9.4. Coroutine Utility Functions 8.10. copy — Shallow and deep copy operations 8.11. pprint — Data pretty printer 8.11.1. PrettyPrinter Objects 8.11.2. Example 8.12. reprlib — Alternate repr() implementation 8.12.1. Repr Objects 8.12.2. Subclassing Repr Objects 8.13. enum — Support for enumerations 8.13.1. Module Contents 8.13.2. Creating an Enum 8.13.3. Programmatic access to enumeration members and their attributes 8.13.4. Duplicating enum members and values 8.13.5. Ensuring unique enumeration values 8.13.6. Using automatic values 8.13.7. Iteration 8.13.8. Comparisons 8.13.9. Allowed members and attributes of enumerations 8.13.10. Restricted subclassing of enumerations 8.13.11. Pickling 8.13.12. Functional API 8.13.13. Derived Enumerations 8.13.13.1. IntEnum 8.13.13.2. IntFlag 8.13.13.3. Flag 8.13.13.4. Others 8.13.14. Interesting examples 8.13.14.1. Omitting values 8.13.14.1.1. Using auto 8.13.14.1.2. Using object 8.13.14.1.3. Using a descriptive string 8.13.14.1.4. Using a custom __new__() 8.13.14.2. OrderedEnum 8.13.14.3. DuplicateFreeEnum 8.13.14.4. Planet 8.13.15. How are Enums different? 8.13.15.1. Enum Classes 8.13.15.2. Enum Members (aka instances) 8.13.15.3. Finer Points 8.13.15.3.1. Supported __dunder__ names 8.13.15.3.2. Supported _sunder_ names 8.13.15.3.3. Enum member type 8.13.15.3.4. Boolean value of Enum classes and members 8.13.15.3.5. Enum classes with methods 8.13.15.3.6. Combining members of Flag 9. Numeric and Mathematical Modules 9.1. numbers — Numeric abstract base classes 9.1.1. The numeric tower 9.1.2. Notes for type implementors 9.1.2.1. Adding More Numeric ABCs 9.1.2.2. Implementing the arithmetic operations 9.2. math — Mathematical functions 9.2.1. Number-theoretic and representation functions 9.2.2. Power and logarithmic functions 9.2.3. Trigonometric functions 9.2.4. Angular conversion 9.2.5. Hyperbolic functions 9.2.6. Special functions 9.2.7. Constants 9.3. cmath — Mathematical functions for complex numbers 9.3.1. Conversions to and from polar coordinates 9.3.2. Power and logarithmic functions 9.3.3. Trigonometric functions 9.3.4. Hyperbolic functions 9.3.5. Classification functions 9.3.6. Constants 9.4. decimal — Decimal fixed point and floating point arithmetic 9.4.1. Quick-start Tutorial 9.4.2. Decimal objects 9.4.2.1. Logical operands 9.4.3. Context objects 9.4.4. Constants 9.4.5. Rounding modes 9.4.6. Signals 9.4.7. Floating Point Notes 9.4.7.1. Mitigating round-off error with increased precision 9.4.7.2. Special values 9.4.8. Working with threads 9.4.9. Recipes 9.4.10. Decimal FAQ 9.5. fractions — Rational numbers 9.6. random — Generate pseudo-random numbers 9.6.1. Bookkeeping functions 9.6.2. Functions for integers 9.6.3. Functions for sequences 9.6.4. Real-valued distributions 9.6.5. Alternative Generator 9.6.6. Notes on Reproducibility 9.6.7. Examples and Recipes 9.7. statistics — Mathematical statistics functions 9.7.1. Averages and measures of central location 9.7.2. Measures of spread 9.7.3. Function details 9.7.4. Exceptions 10. Functional Programming Modules 10.1. itertools — Functions creating iterators for efficient looping 10.1.1. Itertool functions 10.1.2. Itertools Recipes 10.2. functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects 10.2.1. partial Objects 10.3. operator — Standard operators as functions 10.3.1. Mapping Operators to Functions 10.3.2. Inplace Operators 11. File and Directory Access 11.1. pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths 11.1.1. Basic use 11.1.2. Pure paths 11.1.2.1. General properties 11.1.2.2. Operators 11.1.2.3. Accessing individual parts 11.1.2.4. Methods and properties 11.1.3. Concrete paths 11.1.3.1. Methods 11.2. os.path — Common pathname manipulations 11.3. fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams 11.4. stat — Interpreting stat() results 11.5. filecmp — File and Directory Comparisons 11.5.1. The dircmp class 11.6. tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories 11.6.1. Examples 11.6.2. Deprecated functions and variables 11.7. glob — Unix style pathname pattern expansion 11.8. fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching 11.9. linecache — Random access to text lines 11.10. shutil — High-level file operations 11.10.1. Directory and files operations 11.10.1.1. copytree example 11.10.1.2. rmtree example 11.10.2. Archiving operations 11.10.2.1. Archiving example 11.10.3. Querying the size of the output terminal 11.11. macpath — Mac OS 9 path manipulation functions 12. Data Persistence 12.1. pickle — Python object serialization 12.1.1. Relationship to other Python modules 12.1.1.1. Comparison with marshal 12.1.1.2. Comparison with json 12.1.2. Data stream format 12.1.3. Module Interface 12.1.4. What can be pickled and unpickled? 12.1.5. Pickling Class Instances 12.1.5.1. Persistence of External Objects 12.1.5.2. Dispatch Tables 12.1.5.3. Handling Stateful Objects 12.1.6. Restricting Globals 12.1.7. Performance 12.1.8. Examples 12.2. copyreg — Register pickle support functions 12.2.1. Example 12.3. shelve — Python object persistence 12.3.1. Restrictions 12.3.2. Example 12.4. marshal — Internal Python object serialization 12.5. dbm — Interfaces to Unix “databases” 12.5.1. dbm.gnu — GNU’s reinterpretation of dbm 12.5.2. dbm.ndbm — Interface based on ndbm 12.5.3. dbm.dumb — Portable DBM implementation 12.6. sqlite3 — DB-API 2.0 interface for SQLite databases 12.6.1. Module functions and constants 12.6.2. Connection Objects 12.6.3. Cursor Objects 12.6.4. Row Objects 12.6.5. Exceptions 12.6.6. SQLite and Python types 12.6.6.1. Introduction 12.6.6.2. Using adapters to store additional Python types in SQLite databases 12.6.6.2.1. Letting your object adapt itself 12.6.6.2.2. Registering an adapter callable 12.6.6.3. Converting SQLite values to custom Python types 12.6.6.4. Default adapters and converters 12.6.7. Controlling Transactions 12.6.8. Using sqlite3 efficiently 12.6.8.1. Using shortcut methods 12.6.8.2. Accessing columns by name instead of by index 12.6.8.3. Using the connection as a context manager 12.6.9. Common issues 12.6.9.1. Multithreading 13. Data Compression and Archiving 13.1. zlib — Compression compatible with gzip 13.2. gzip — Support for gzip files 13.2.1. Examples of usage 13.3. bz2 — Support for bzip2 compression 13.3.1. (De)compression of files 13.3.2. Incremental (de)compression 13.3.3. One-shot (de)compression 13.4. lzma — Compression using the LZMA algorithm 13.4.1. Reading and writing compressed files 13.4.2. Compressing and decompressing data in memory 13.4.3. Miscellaneous 13.4.4. Specifying custom filter chains 13.4.5. Examples 13.5. zipfile — Work with ZIP archives 13.5.1. ZipFile Objects 13.5.2. PyZipFile Objects 13.5.3. ZipInfo Objects 13.5.4. Command-Line Interface 13.5.4.1. Command-line options 13.6. tarfile — Read and write tar archive files 13.6.1. TarFile Objects 13.6.2. TarInfo Objects 13.6.3. Command-Line Interface 13.6.3.1. Command-line options 13.6.4. Examples 13.6.5. Supported tar formats 13.6.6. Unicode issues 14. File Formats 14.1. csv — CSV File Reading and Writing 14.1.1. Module Contents 14.1.2. Dialects and Formatting Parameters 14.1.3. Reader Objects 14.1.4. Writer Objects 14.1.5. Examples 14.2. configparser — Configuration file parser 14.2.1. Quick Start 14.2.2. Supported Datatypes 14.2.3. Fallback Values 14.2.4. Supported INI File Structure 14.2.5. Interpolation of values 14.2.6. Mapping Protocol Access 14.2.7. Customizing Parser Behaviour 14.2.8. Legacy API Examples 14.2.9. ConfigParser Objects 14.2.10. RawConfigParser Objects 14.2.11. Exceptions 14.3. netrc — netrc file processing 14.3.1. netrc Objects 14.4. xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data 14.4.1. Packer Objects 14.4.2. Unpacker Objects 14.4.3. Exceptions 14.5. plistlib — Generate and parse Mac OS X .plist files 14.5.1. Examples 15. Cryptographic Services 15.1. hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests 15.1.1. Hash algorithms 15.1.2. SHAKE variable length digests 15.1.3. Key derivation 15.1.4. BLAKE2 15.1.4.1. Creating hash objects 15.1.4.2. Constants 15.1.4.3. Examples 15.1.4.3.1. Simple hashing 15.1.4.3.2. Using different digest sizes 15.1.4.3.3. Keyed hashing 15.1.4.3.4. Randomized hashing 15.1.4.3.5. Personalization 15.1.4.3.6. Tree mode 15.1.4.4. Credits 15.2. hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication 15.3. secrets — Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets 15.3.1. Random numbers 15.3.2. Generating tokens 15.3.2.1. How many bytes should tokens use? 15.3.3. Other functions 15.3.4. Recipes and best practices 16. Generic Operating System Services 16.1. os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces 16.1.1. File Names, Command Line Arguments, and Environment Variables 16.1.2. Process Parameters 16.1.3. File Object Creation 16.1.4. File Descriptor Operations 16.1.4.1. Querying the size of a terminal 16.1.4.2. Inheritance of File Descriptors 16.1.5. Files and Directories 16.1.5.1. Linux extended attributes 16.1.6. Process Management 16.1.7. Interface to the scheduler 16.1.8. Miscellaneous System Information 16.1.9. Random numbers 16.2. io — Core tools for working with streams 16.2.1. Overview 16.2.1.1. Text I/O 16.2.1.2. Binary I/O 16.2.1.3. Raw I/O 16.2.2. High-level Module Interface 16.2.2.1. In-memory streams 16.2.3. Class hierarchy 16.2.3.1. I/O Base Classes 16.2.3.2. Raw File I/O 16.2.3.3. Buffered Streams 16.2.3.4. Text I/O 16.2.4. Performance 16.2.4.1. Binary I/O 16.2.4.2. Text I/O 16.2.4.3. Multi-threading 16.2.4.4. Reentrancy 16.3. time — Time access and conversions 16.3.1. Functions 16.3.2. Clock ID Constants 16.3.3. Timezone Constants 16.4. argparse — Parser for command-line options, arguments and sub-commands 16.4.1. Example 16.4.1.1. Creating a parser 16.4.1.2. Adding arguments 16.4.1.3. Parsing arguments 16.4.2. ArgumentParser objects 16.4.2.1. prog 16.4.2.2. usage 16.4.2.3. description 16.4.2.4. epilog 16.4.2.5. parents 16.4.2.6. formatter_class 16.4.2.7. prefix_chars 16.4.2.8. fromfile_prefix_chars 16.4.2.9. argument_default 16.4.2.10. allow_abbrev 16.4.2.11. conflict_handler 16.4.2.12. add_help 16.4.3. The add_argument() method 16.4.3.1. name or flags 16.4.3.2. action 16.4.3.3. nargs 16.4.3.4. const 16.4.3.5. default 16.4.3.6. type 16.4.3.7. choices 16.4.3.8. required 16.4.3.9. help 16.4.3.10. metavar 16.4.3.11. dest 16.4.3.12. Action classes 16.4.4. The parse_args() method 16.4.4.1. Option value syntax 16.4.4.2. Invalid arguments 16.4.4.3. Arguments containing - 16.4.4.4. Argument abbreviations (prefix matching) 16.4.4.5. Beyond sys.argv 16.4.4.6. The Namespace object 16.4.5. Other utilities 16.4.5.1. Sub-commands 16.4.5.2. FileType objects 16.4.5.3. Argument groups 16.4.5.4. Mutual exclusion 16.4.5.5. Parser defaults 16.4.5.6. Printing help 16.4.5.7. Partial parsing 16.4.5.8. Customizing file parsing 16.4.5.9. Exiting methods 16.4.6. Upgrading optparse code 16.5. getopt — C-style parser for command line options 16.6. logging — Logging facility for Python 16.6.1. Logger Objects 16.6.2. Logging Levels 16.6.3. Handler Objects 16.6.4. Formatter Objects 16.6.5. Filter Objects 16.6.6. LogRecord Objects 16.6.7. LogRecord attributes 16.6.8. LoggerAdapter Objects 16.6.9. Thread Safety 16.6.10. Module-Level Functions 16.6.11. Module-Level Attributes 16.6.12. Integration with the warnings module 16.7. logging.config — Logging configuration 16.7.1. Configuration functions 16.7.2. Configuration dictionary schema 16.7.2.1. Dictionary Schema Details 16.7.2.2. Incremental Configuration 16.7.2.3. Object connections 16.7.2.4. User-defined objects 16.7.2.5. Access to external objects 16.7.2.6. Access to internal objects 16.7.2.7. Import resolution and custom importers 16.7.3. Configuration file format 16.8. logging.handlers — Logging handlers 16.8.1. StreamHandler 16.8.2. FileHandler 16.8.3. NullHandler 16.8.4. WatchedFileHandler 16.8.5. BaseRotatingHandler 16.8.6. RotatingFileHandler 16.8.7. TimedRotatingFileHandler 16.8.8. SocketHandler 16.8.9. DatagramHandler 16.8.10. SysLogHandler 16.8.11. NTEventLogHandler 16.8.12. SMTPHandler 16.8.13. MemoryHandler 16.8.14. HTTPHandler 16.8.15. QueueHandler 16.8.16. QueueListener 16.9. getpass — Portable password input 16.10. curses — Terminal handling for character-cell displays 16.10.1. Functions 16.10.2. Window Objects 16.10.3. Constants 16.11. curses.textpad — Text input widget for curses programs 16.11.1. Textbox objects 16.12. curses.ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters 16.13. curses.panel — A panel stack extension for curses 16.13.1. Functions 16.13.2. Panel Objects 16.14. platform — Access to underlying platform’s identifying data 16.14.1. Cross Platform 16.14.2. Java Platform 16.14.3. Windows Platform 16.14.3.1. Win95/98 specific 16.14.4. Mac OS Platform 16.14.5. Unix Platforms 16.15. errno — Standard errno system symbols 16.16. ctypes — A foreign function library for Python 16.16.1. ctypes tutorial 16.16.1.1. Loading dynamic link libraries 16.16.1.2. Accessing functions from loaded dlls 16.16.1.3. Calling functions 16.16.1.4. Fundamental data types 16.16.1.5. Calling functions, continued 16.16.1.6. Calling functions with your own custom data types 16.16.1.7. Specifying the required argument types (function prototypes) 16.16.1.8. Return types 16.16.1.9. Passing pointers (or: passing parameters by reference) 16.16.1.10. Structures and unions 16.16.1.11. Structure/union alignment and byte order 16.16.1.12. Bit fields in structures and unions 16.16.1.13. Arrays 16.16.1.14. Pointers 16.16.1.15. Type conversions 16.16.1.16. Incomplete Types 16.16.1.17. Callback functions 16.16.1.18. Accessing values exported from dlls 16.16.1.19. Surprises 16.16.1.20. Variable-sized data types 16.16.2. ctypes reference 16.16.2.1. Finding shared libraries 16.16.2.2. Loading shared libraries 16.16.2.3. Foreign functions 16.16.2.4. Function prototypes 16.16.2.5. Utility functions 16.16.2.6. Data types 16.16.2.7. Fundamental data types 16.16.2.8. Structured data types 16.16.2.9. Arrays and pointers 17. Concurrent Execution 17.1. threading — Thread-based parallelism 17.1.1. Thread-Local Data 17.1.2. Thread Objects 17.1.3. Lock Objects 17.1.4. RLock Objects 17.1.5. Condition Objects 17.1.6. Semaphore Objects 17.1.6.1. Semaphore Example 17.1.7. Event Objects 17.1.8. Timer Objects 17.1.9. Barrier Objects 17.1.10. Using locks, conditions, and semaphores in the with statement 17.2. multiprocessing — Process-based parallelism 17.2.1. Introduction 17.2.1.1. The Process class 17.2.1.2. Contexts and start methods 17.2.1.3. Exchanging objects between processes 17.2.1.4. Synchronization between processes 17.2.1.5. Sharing state between processes 17.2.1.6. Using a pool of workers 17.2.2. Reference 17.2.2.1. Process and exceptions 17.2.2.2. Pipes and Queues 17.2.2.3. Miscellaneous 17.2.2.4. Connection Objects 17.2.2.5. Synchronization primitives 17.2.2.6. Shared ctypes Objects 17.2.2.6.1. The multiprocessing.sharedctypes module 17.2.2.7. Managers 17.2.2.7.1. Customized managers 17.2.2.7.2. Using a remote manager 17.2.2.8. Proxy Objects 17.2.2.8.1. Cleanup 17.2.2.9. Process Pools 17.2.2.10. Listeners and Clients 17.2.2.10.1. Address Formats 17.2.2.11. Authentication keys 17.2.2.12. Logging 17.2.2.13. The multiprocessing.dummy module 17.2.3. Programming guidelines 17.2.3.1. All start methods 17.2.3.2. The spawn and forkserver start methods 17.2.4. Examples 17.3. The concurrent package 17.4. concurrent.futures — Launching parallel tasks 17.4.1. Executor Objects 17.4.2. ThreadPoolExecutor 17.4.2.1. ThreadPoolExecutor Example 17.4.3. ProcessPoolExecutor 17.4.3.1. ProcessPoolExecutor Example 17.4.4. Future Objects 17.4.5. Module Functions 17.4.6. Exception classes 17.5. subprocess — Subprocess management 17.5.1. Using the subprocess Module 17.5.1.1. Frequently Used Arguments 17.5.1.2. Popen Constructor 17.5.1.3. Exceptions 17.5.2. Security Considerations 17.5.3. Popen Objects 17.5.4. Windows Popen Helpers 17.5.4.1. Constants 17.5.5. Older high-level API 17.5.6. Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module 17.5.6.1. Replacing /bin/sh shell backquote 17.5.6.2. Replacing shell pipeline 17.5.6.3. Replacing os.system() 17.5.6.4. Replacing the os.spawn family 17.5.6.5. Replacing os.popen(), os.popen2(), os.popen3() 17.5.6.6. Replacing functions from the popen2 module 17.5.7. Legacy Shell Invocation Functions 17.5.8. Notes 17.5.8.1. Converting an argument sequence to a string on Windows 17.6. sched — Event scheduler 17.6.1. Scheduler Objects 17.7. queue — A synchronized queue class 17.7.1. Queue Objects 17.8. dummy_threading — Drop-in replacement for the threading module 17.9. _thread — Low-level threading API 17.10. _dummy_thread — Drop-in replacement for the _thread module 18. Interprocess Communication and Networking 18.1. socket — Low-level networking interface 18.1.1. Socket families 18.1.2. Module contents 18.1.2.1. Exceptions 18.1.2.2. Constants 18.1.2.3. Functions 18.1.2.3.1. Creating sockets 18.1.2.3.2. Other functions 18.1.3. Socket Objects 18.1.4. Notes on socket timeouts 18.1.4.1. Timeouts and the connect method 18.1.4.2. Timeouts and the accept method 18.1.5. Example 18.2. ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects 18.2.1. Functions, Constants, and Exceptions 18.2.1.1. Socket creation 18.2.1.2. Context creation 18.2.1.3. Random generation 18.2.1.4. Certificate handling 18.2.1.5. Constants 18.2.2. SSL Sockets 18.2.3. SSL Contexts 18.2.4. Certificates 18.2.4.1. Certificate chains 18.2.4.2. CA certificates 18.2.4.3. Combined key and certificate 18.2.4.4. Self-signed certificates 18.2.5. Examples 18.2.5.1. Testing for SSL support 18.2.5.2. Client-side operation 18.2.5.3. Server-side operation 18.2.6. Notes on non-blocking sockets 18.2.7. Memory BIO Support 18.2.8. SSL session 18.2.9. Security considerations 18.2.9.1. Best defaults 18.2.9.2. Manual settings 18.2.9.2.1. Verifying certificates 18.2.9.2.2. Protocol versions 18.2.9.2.3. Cipher selection 18.2.9.3. Multi-processing 18.2.10. LibreSSL support 18.3. select — Waiting for I/O completion 18.3.1. /dev/poll Polling Objects 18.3.2. Edge and Level Trigger Polling (epoll) Objects 18.3.3. Polling Objects 18.3.4. Kqueue Objects 18.3.5. Kevent Objects 18.4. selectors — High-level I/O multiplexing 18.4.1. Introduction 18.4.2. Classes 18.4.3. Examples 18.5. asyncio — Asynchronous I/O, event loop, coroutines and tasks 18.5.1. Base Event Loop 18.5.1.1. Run an event loop 18.5.1.2. Calls 18.5.1.3. Delayed calls 18.5.1.4. Futures 18.5.1.5. Tasks 18.5.1.6. Creating connections 18.5.1.7. Creating listening connections 18.5.1.8. Watch file descriptors 18.5.1.9. Low-level socket operations 18.5.1.10. Resolve host name 18.5.1.11. Connect pipes 18.5.1.12. UNIX signals 18.5.1.13. Executor 18.5.1.14. Error Handling API 18.5.1.15. Debug mode 18.5.1.16. Server 18.5.1.17. Handle 18.5.1.18. Event loop examples 18.5.1.18.1. Hello World with call_soon() 18.5.1.18.2. Display the current date with call_later() 18.5.1.18.3. Watch a file descriptor for read events 18.5.1.18.4. Set signal handlers for SIGINT and SIGTERM 18.5.2. Event loops 18.5.2.1. Event loop functions 18.5.2.2. Available event loops 18.5.2.3. Platform support 18.5.2.3.1. Windows 18.5.2.3.2. Mac OS X 18.5.2.4. Event loop policies and the default policy 18.5.2.5. Event loop policy interface 18.5.2.6. Access to the global loop policy 18.5.2.7. Customizing the event loop policy 18.5.3. Tasks and coroutines 18.5.3.1. Coroutines 18.5.3.1.1. Example: Hello World coroutine 18.5.3.1.2. Example: Coroutine displaying the current date 18.5.3.1.3. Example: Chain coroutines 18.5.3.2. InvalidStateError 18.5.3.3. TimeoutError 18.5.3.4. Future 18.5.3.4.1. Example: Future with run_until_complete() 18.5.3.4.2. Example: Future with run_forever() 18.5.3.5. Task 18.5.3.5.1. Example: Parallel execution of tasks 18.5.3.6. Task functions 18.5.4. Transports and protocols (callback based API) 18.5.4.1. Transports 18.5.4.1.1. BaseTransport 18.5.4.1.2. ReadTransport 18.5.4.1.3. WriteTransport 18.5.4.1.4. DatagramTransport 18.5.4.1.5. BaseSubprocessTransport 18.5.4.2. Protocols 18.5.4.2.1. Protocol classes 18.5.4.2.2. Connection callbacks 18.5.4.2.3. Streaming protocols 18.5.4.2.4. Datagram protocols 18.5.4.2.5. Flow control callbacks 18.5.4.2.6. Coroutines and protocols 18.5.4.3. Protocol examples 18.5.4.3.1. TCP echo client protocol 18.5.4.3.2. TCP echo server protocol 18.5.4.3.3. UDP echo client protocol 18.5.4.3.4. UDP echo server protocol 18.5.4.3.5. Register an open socket to wait for data using a protocol 18.5.5. Streams (coroutine based API) 18.5.5.1. Stream functions 18.5.5.2. StreamReader 18.5.5.3. StreamWriter 18.5.5.4. StreamReaderProtocol 18.5.5.5. IncompleteReadError 18.5.5.6. LimitOverrunError 18.5.5.7. Stream examples 18.5.5.7.1. TCP echo client using streams 18.5.5.7.2. TCP echo server using streams 18.5.5.7.3. Get HTTP headers 18.5.5.7.4. Register an open socket to wait for data using streams 18.5.6. Subprocess 18.5.6.1. Windows event loop 18.5.6.2. Create a subprocess: high-level API using Process 18.5.6.3. Create a subprocess: low-level API using subprocess.Popen 18.5.6.4. Constants 18.5.6.5. Process 18.5.6.6. Subprocess and threads 18.5.6.7. Subprocess examples 18.5.6.7.1. Subprocess using transport and protocol 18.5.6.7.2. Subprocess using streams 18.5.7. Synchronization primitives 18.5.7.1. Locks 18.5.7.1.1. Lock 18.5.7.1.2. Event 18.5.7.1.3. Condition 18.5.7.2. Semaphores 18.5.7.2.1. Semaphore 18.5.7.2.2. BoundedSemaphore 18.5.8. Queues 18.5.8.1. Queue 18.5.8.2. PriorityQueue 18.5.8.3. LifoQueue 18.5.8.3.1. Exceptions 18.5.9. Develop with asyncio 18.5.9.1. Debug mode of asyncio 18.5.9.2. Cancellation 18.5.9.3. Concurrency and multithreading 18.5.9.4. Handle blocking functions correctly 18.5.9.5. Logging 18.5.9.6. Detect coroutine objects never scheduled 18.5.9.7. Detect exceptions never consumed 18.5.9.8. Chain coroutines correctly 18.5.9.9. Pending task destroyed 18.5.9.10. Close transports and event loops 18.6. asyncore — Asynchronous socket handler 18.6.1. asyncore Example basic HTTP client 18.6.2. asyncore Example basic echo server 18.7. asynchat — Asynchronous socket command/response handler 18.7.1. asynchat Example 18.8. signal — Set handlers for asynchronous events 18.8.1. General rules 18.8.1.1. Execution of Python signal handlers 18.8.1.2. Signals and threads 18.8.2. Module contents 18.8.3. Example 18.9. mmap — Memory-mapped file support 19. Internet Data Handling 19.1. email — An email and MIME handling package 19.1.1. email.message: Representing an email message 19.1.2. email.parser: Parsing email messages 19.1.2.1. FeedParser API 19.1.2.2. Parser API 19.1.2.3. Additional notes 19.1.3. email.generator: Generating MIME documents 19.1.4. email.policy: Policy Objects 19.1.5. email.errors: Exception and Defect classes 19.1.6. email.headerregistry: Custom Header Objects 19.1.7. email.contentmanager: Managing MIME Content 19.1.7.1. Content Manager Instances 19.1.8. email: Examples 19.1.9. email.message.Message: Representing an email message using the compat32 API 19.1.10. email.mime: Creating email and MIME objects from scratch 19.1.11. email.header: Internationalized headers 19.1.12. email.charset: Representing character sets 19.1.13. email.encoders: Encoders 19.1.14. email.utils: Miscellaneous utilities 19.1.15. email.iterators: Iterators 19.2. json — JSON encoder and decoder 19.2.1. Basic Usage 19.2.2. Encoders and Decoders 19.2.3. Exceptions 19.2.4. Standard Compliance and Interoperability 19.2.4.1. Character Encodings 19.2.4.2. Infinite and NaN Number Values 19.2.4.3. Repeated Names Within an Object 19.2.4.4. Top-level Non-Object, Non-Array Values 19.2.4.5. Implementation Limitations 19.2.5. Command Line Interface 19.2.5.1. Command line options 19.3. mailcap — Mailcap file handling 19.4. mailbox — Manipulate mailboxes in various formats 19.4.1. Mailbox objects 19.4.1.1. Maildir 19.4.1.2. mbox 19.4.1.3. MH 19.4.1.4. Babyl 19.4.1.5. MMDF 19.4.2. Message objects 19.4.2.1. MaildirMessage 19.4.2.2. mboxMessage 19.4.2.3. MHMessage 19.4.2.4. BabylMessage 19.4.2.5. MMDFMessage 19.4.3. Exceptions 19.4.4. Examples 19.5. mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types 19.5.1. MimeTypes Objects 19.6. base64 — Base16, Base32, Base64, Base85 Data Encodings 19.7. binhex — Encode and decode binhex4 files 19.7.1. Notes 19.8. binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII 19.9. quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data 19.10. uu — Encode and decode uuencode files 20. Structured Markup Processing Tools 20.1. html — HyperText Markup Language support 20.2. html.parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser 20.2.1. Example HTML Parser Application 20.2.2. HTMLParser Methods 20.2.3. Examples 20.3. html.entities — Definitions of HTML general entities 20.4. XML Processing Modules 20.4.1. XML vulnerabilities 20.4.2. The defusedxml and defusedexpat Packages 20.5. xml.etree.ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API 20.5.1. Tutorial 20.5.1.1. XML tree and elements 20.5.1.2. Parsing XML 20.5.1.3. Pull API for non-blocking parsing 20.5.1.4. Finding interesting elements 20.5.1.5. Modifying an XML File 20.5.1.6. Building XML documents 20.5.1.7. Parsing XML with Namespaces 20.5.1.8. Additional resources 20.5.2. XPath support 20.5.2.1. Example 20.5.2.2. Supported XPath syntax 20.5.3. Reference 20.5.3.1. Functions 20.5.3.2. Element Objects 20.5.3.3. ElementTree Objects 20.5.3.4. QName Objects 20.5.3.5. TreeBuilder Objects 20.5.3.6. XMLParser Objects 20.5.3.7. XMLPullParser Objects 20.5.3.8. Exceptions 20.6. xml.dom — The Document Object Model API 20.6.1. Module Contents 20.6.2. Objects in the DOM 20.6.2.1. DOMImplementation Objects 20.6.2.2. Node Objects 20.6.2.3. NodeList Objects 20.6.2.4. DocumentType Objects 20.6.2.5. Document Objects 20.6.2.6. Element Objects 20.6.2.7. Attr Objects 20.6.2.8. NamedNodeMap Objects 20.6.2.9. Comment Objects 20.6.2.10. Text and CDATASection Objects 20.6.2.11. ProcessingInstruction Objects 20.6.2.12. Exceptions 20.6.3. Conformance 20.6.3.1. Type Mapping 20.6.3.2. Accessor Methods 20.7. xml.dom.minidom — Minimal DOM implementation 20.7.1. DOM Objects 20.7.2. DOM Example 20.7.3. minidom and the DOM standard 20.8. xml.dom.pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees 20.8.1. DOMEventStream Objects 20.9. xml.sax — Support for SAX2 parsers 20.9.1. SAXException Objects 20.10. xml.sax.handler — Base classes for SAX handlers 20.10.1. ContentHandler Objects 20.10.2. DTDHandler Objects 20.10.3. EntityResolver Objects 20.10.4. ErrorHandler Objects 20.11. xml.sax.saxutils — SAX Utilities 20.12. xml.sax.xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers 20.12.1. XMLReader Objects 20.12.2. IncrementalParser Objects 20.12.3. Locator Objects 20.12.4. InputSource Objects 20.12.5. The Attributes Interface 20.12.6. The AttributesNS Interface 20.13. xml.parsers.expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat 20.13.1. XMLParser Objects 20.13.2. ExpatError Exceptions 20.13.3. Example 20.13.4. Content Model Descriptions 20.13.5. Expat error constants 21. Internet Protocols and Support 21.1. webbrowser — Convenient Web-browser controller 21.1.1. Browser Controller Objects 21.2. cgi — Common Gateway Interface support 21.2.1. Introduction 21.2.2. Using the cgi module 21.2.3. Higher Level Interface 21.2.4. Functions 21.2.5. Caring about security 21.2.6. Installing your CGI script on a Unix system 21.2.7. Testing your CGI script 21.2.8. Debugging CGI scripts 21.2.9. Common problems and solutions 21.3. cgitb — Traceback manager for CGI scripts 21.4. wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation 21.4.1. wsgiref.util – WSGI environment utilities 21.4.2. wsgiref.headers – WSGI response header tools 21.4.3. wsgiref.simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server 21.4.4. wsgiref.validate — WSGI conformance checker 21.4.5. wsgiref.handlers – server/gateway base classes 21.4.6. Examples 21.5. urllib — URL handling modules 21.6. urllib.request — Extensible library for opening URLs 21.6.1. Request Objects 21.6.2. OpenerDirector Objects 21.6.3. BaseHandler Objects 21.6.4. HTTPRedirectHandler Objects 21.6.5. HTTPCookieProcessor Objects 21.6.6. ProxyHandler Objects 21.6.7. HTTPPasswordMgr Objects 21.6.8. HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects 21.6.9. AbstractBasicAuthHandler Objects 21.6.10. HTTPBasicAuthHandler Objects 21.6.11. ProxyBasicAuthHandler Objects 21.6.12. AbstractDigestAuthHandler Objects 21.6.13. HTTPDigestAuthHandler Objects 21.6.14. ProxyDigestAuthHandler Objects 21.6.15. HTTPHandler Objects 21.6.16. HTTPSHandler Objects 21.6.17. FileHandler Objects 21.6.18. DataHandler Objects 21.6.19. FTPHandler Objects 21.6.20. CacheFTPHandler Objects 21.6.21. UnknownHandler Objects 21.6.22. HTTPErrorProcessor Objects 21.6.23. Examples 21.6.24. Legacy interface 21.6.25. urllib.request Restrictions 21.7. urllib.response — Response classes used by urllib 21.8. urllib.parse — Parse URLs into components 21.8.1. URL Parsing 21.8.2. Parsing ASCII Encoded Bytes 21.8.3. Structured Parse Results 21.8.4. URL Quoting 21.9. urllib.error — Exception classes raised by urllib.request 21.10. urllib.robotparser — Parser for robots.txt 21.11. http — HTTP modules 21.11.1. HTTP status codes 21.12. http.client — HTTP protocol client 21.12.1. HTTPConnection Objects 21.12.2. HTTPResponse Objects 21.12.3. Examples 21.12.4. HTTPMessage Objects 21.13. ftplib — FTP protocol client 21.13.1. FTP Objects 21.13.2. FTP_TLS Objects 21.14. poplib — POP3 protocol client 21.14.1. POP3 Objects 21.14.2. POP3 Example 21.15. imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client 21.15.1. IMAP4 Objects 21.15.2. IMAP4 Example 21.16. nntplib — NNTP protocol client 21.16.1. NNTP Objects 21.16.1.1. Attributes 21.16.1.2. Methods 21.16.2. Utility functions 21.17. smtplib — SMTP protocol client 21.17.1. SMTP Objects 21.17.2. SMTP Example 21.18. smtpd — SMTP Server 21.18.1. SMTPServer Objects 21.18.2. DebuggingServer Objects 21.18.3. PureProxy Objects 21.18.4. MailmanProxy Objects 21.18.5. SMTPChannel Objects 21.19. telnetlib — Telnet client 21.19.1. Telnet Objects 21.19.2. Telnet Example 21.20. uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122 21.20.1. Example 21.21. socketserver — A framework for network servers 21.21.1. Server Creation Notes 21.21.2. Server Objects 21.21.3. Request Handler Objects 21.21.4. Examples 21.21.4.1. socketserver.TCPServer Example 21.21.4.2. socketserver.UDPServer Example 21.21.4.3. Asynchronous Mixins 21.22. http.server — HTTP servers 21.23. http.cookies — HTTP state management 21.23.1. Cookie Objects 21.23.2. Morsel Objects 21.23.3. Example 21.24. http.cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients 21.24.1. CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects 21.24.2. FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers 21.24.3. CookiePolicy Objects 21.24.4. DefaultCookiePolicy Objects 21.24.5. Cookie Objec
CanFestival3. Version 3.0 The CANOpen stack manual
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